UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   PUBLICATIONS 


COLLEGE  OE  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  BELLADONNA 

IN  CALIFORNIA 


BY 

ALBERT  SCHNEIDER 


BULLETIN  No.  275 

December.  1916 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

BERKELEY 

1916 


Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 

HEADS    OP   DIVISIONS 

Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Director. 
Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture  (Emeritus). 

Herbert  J.  Webber,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station;  Plant  Breeding. 
Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Vice-Director;  Dairy  Management. 
William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 
Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 

Robert  H.  Loughridge,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Physics  (Emeritus). 
Charles  W.  Woodworth,  Entomology. 
Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 
J.  Eliot  Coit,  Citriculture. 
John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 
Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 

John  W.  Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 
Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Enology. 
Warren  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 
John  S.  Burd,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
Charles  B.  Lipman,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 
Clarence  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science  and  Bacteriology. 
Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 
Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 
James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 
Fritz  W.  Woll,  Animal  Nutrition. 
A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  Pomology. 
Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 
W.  P.  Kelley,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
Elwood  Mead,  Rural  Institutions. 
H.  J.  Quayle,  Entomology. 
J.  B.  Davidson,  Agricultural  Engineering. 
H.  S.  Reed,  Plant  Physiology. 
D.  T.  Mason,  Forestry. 

William  G.  Hummel,  Agricultural  Education. 
John  E.  Dougherty,  Poultry  Husbandry. 
S.  S.  Rogers,  Olericulture. 
*Frank  Adams,  Experimental  Irrigation. 
H.  S.  Baird,  Dairy  Industry. 
David  N.  Morgan,  Assistant  to  the  Director. 
Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,  Librarian. 


In  co-operation  Office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering,  U.  S.  D.  A. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  BELLADONNA 

IN  CALIFORNIA 


By  ALBERT  SCHNEIDER* 


Belladonna  is  an  important  drug  plant,  and  is  peculiarly  suited 
to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  coast  regions  of  California.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  of  cultural  methods  is  based  upon  numerous  field  tests, 
many  of  which  were  carried  out  on  a  commercial  scale.  The  general 
results  of  these  tests  have  demonstrated  that  belladonna  can  be  grown 
successfully  and  profitably,  provided  the  enterprise  is  rightly  under- 
taken. A  close  adherence  to  the  suggestions  herein  given,  it  is  believed, 
will  be  followed  by  reasonable  success. 

CALIFORNIA  EXPERIMENTS 

The  California  experiments  are  especially  interesting,  first,  because 
of  the  rather  wide  range  of  experience  which  they  represent,  and 
second,  because  the  details  of  the  successful  commercial  growing  of 
belladonna  have  been  fully  worked  out.  It  is  therefore  desirable 
to  relate  these  experiences  in  detail  for  the  benefit  of  those  interested 
in  the  commercial  growing  of  this  drug. 

In  1903  some  belladonna  plants  were  started  in  the  garden  of 
Medicinal  Plants,1  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco.  The  soil 
in  which  this  belladonna  was  grown  is  "made  soil,"  consisting  of  loam 
which  had  been  hauled  in  and  mixed  with  the  sand  which  formed  the 
base  of  Golden  Gate  Park.  These  plants  received  but  little  care,  yet 
thrived  well.  The  second  year's  growth  made  its  appearance  late  in 
January  and  the  young  shoots  were  not  injured  by  a  slight  frost.  The 
third  and  fourth  years'  growths  were  better  than  the  growth  of  the 
second  year.  Several  dried  samples  of  stems  and  leaves  submitted  to 
Johnson  &  Johnson  (F.  B.  Kilmer)  for  analysis  showed  a  high  yield 
of  alkaloids.  Analyses  made  at  the  California  College  of  Pharmacy 
showed  the  same  high  yield,  ranging  from  0.40  to  0.82  per  cent  in 
the  leaves,  and  0.50  per  cent  in  the  stems,  as  given  by  Kilmer. 

*  Professor  of  Economic  Pharmaceutical  Botany,  Pharmacognosy  and  Bac- 
teriology, California  College  of  Pharmacy. 

i  This  garden  was  abandoned  later,  due  to  the  lack  of  funds  necessary  for 
its  maintenance. 


136  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

In  1906  arrangements  were  made  to  carry  on  tests  with  belladonna 
at  the  experimental  gardens  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 
University  of  California,  under  the  direction  of  R.  E.  Mansell,  in 
charge  of  the  field  experiments.  Cold-frame  seeding  was  done  in 
December,  1906,  and  about  200  young  plants  were  transplanted  in 
the  month  of  May.  1907,  into  rather  poor,  inadequately  prepared  soil 
(clay,  adobe,  and  gravel)  on  top  of  a  ridge.  This  soil  was  hard,  and 
dry,  and  there  were  no  arrangements  for  irrigating.  Naturally  the 
plants  made  a  very  poor  growth  and  many  were  killed  by  drought  and 
weeds.  Those  which  survived  flowered  in  August.  In  December,  1907, 
some  of  the  surviving  plants  were  transplanted  into  another  plot  in 
which  the  soil  was  even  poorer  than  in  the  one  from  which  they  were 
taken,  and  not  one  plant  survived  the  season  of  1908,  a  season  of  very 
high  rainfall.  These  tests  demonstrated  that  unless  belladonna  is  well 
rooted  at  the  time  of  transplanting  (December  to  March)  it  cannot 
survive  the  dry  season  (May  to  early  December)  without  irrigation. 
The  experiments  also  proved  that  after  the  plant  is  once  well  rooted, 
it  is  highly  resistant  to  drought. 

In  1906  and  1907  some  tests  were  made  by  the  writer  in  a  small 
garden  at  Salinas,  California.  Seeding  was  done  in  the  open  on  Janu- 
ary 14,  1906,  and  the  first  seedlings  appeared  on  the  2nd  of  March. 
The  soil  was  of  the  adobe  variety,  wrell  fertilized  with  old  stable  manure, 
and  well  cultivated.  The  rainfall  of  the  season  was  heavy.  The  plants 
made  an  excellent  growth,  flowering  in  July.  This  plat  also  received 
a  top-dressing  of  lime  at  the  time  of  seeding. 

Other  small  plantings  were  made  at  Ross  Valley  by  F.  A.  Hund, 
at  Los  Angeles  by  George  A.  Hill,  and  by  B.  Phillip  at  Alameda. 

The  sum  total  of  results  from  the  small  experimental  plantings 
above  referred  to  led  to  the  conclusion  that  certain  areas  of  the  coast 
region  are  peculiarly  suited  to  the  growing  of  belladonna. 

In  1907  arrangements  were  made  with  the  firm  of  Johnson  &  John- 
son through  their  representative,  F.  B.  Kilmer,  to  conduct  some  bella- 
donna tests  on  a  commercial  scale.  The  writer,  with  the  co-operation 
of  Mr.  Kilmer,  was  asked  to  make  all  arrangements  for  these  tests. 
During  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September  of  the  year  re- 
ferred to,  the  Salinas  Valley,  Pajaro  Valley,  Santa  Clara  Valley  and 
the  San  Francisco  Bay  regions  were  visited,  and  a  comparative  study 
made  of  soil  and  climate.  After  careful  deliberation  a  tract  of  thirty- 
two  acres  in  the  Castro  Valley,  near  Hayward,  Alameda  County,  was 
selected.  The  soil  of  the  chosen  plat  was  rich  medium  adobe  and  sedi- 
mentary loam,  uniform  in  quality  and  not  much  overrun  by  weeds 
(the  morning  glory  being  the  most  noticeable  among  them).     Big 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA 


137 


crops  of  tomatoes  had  been  grown  in  the  field  for  two  years  preceding. 
The  average  seasonal  rainfall  for  this  small  valley  is  about  20  to  22 
inches.  The  surrounding  low  hills  give  some  protection  against  the 
coast  winds  and  also  add  to  the  soil  moisture  by  slow  seepage. 

The  following  is  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  cultural  operations  for 
the  season  of  1907  and  1908. 

Plowing  was  begun  as  soon  as  the  first  rains  had  moistened  the  soil  suf- 
ficiently (December  14  to  25).  A  double-disc  plow  was  used,  going  to  a  depth 
of  nine  inches.  The  soil  was  then  double-disced  and  double  harrowed.  On 
December  17  seeding  was  begun.  A  No.  5  "Planet  Jr, "  seeder  was  used,  set 
to  drill  about  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to  the  acre;  seeding  to  a  depth  of  one- 


Fig.  1. — Canvas-covered  cold-frames   (6  X  60  ft.)   into  which  the  belladonna  seed 

has  been  planted. 


half  inch,  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  seeding 
were  continued  as  the  lains  and  the  soil  conditions  permitted.  From  Janu- 
ary 18  to  February  11  there  was  more  or  less  rainfall  every  day  and  all  field 
operations  were  discontinued  during  that  period.  By  February  18  the  seeding 
was  completed. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  field  some  seven  weeks  later  made  it  only 
too  evident  that  the  seedlings  would  not  be  able  to  force  their  way  through 
the  soil  top-crust,  and  in  the  meantime  weeds  (mustard,  California  poppy, 
chickweed,  bur  clover,  etc.)  developed  luxuriantly.  In  the  entire  area  seeded 
not  a  thousand  seedlings  made  their  apearance,  and  arrangements  were  made 
at  once  to  re-seed  and  re-till  the  entire  field.  This  was  done  from  February  19, 
to  March  9.  In  addition  three  canvas-covered  cold-frames  (6x60  feet)  were 
seeded  on  February  16  and  17,  and  March  3,  about  1.5  pounds  of  foreign  seed 
per  frame  being  used. 

As  was  half  anticipated,  based  upon  the  complete  failure  of  the  first  seeding, 
the  second  seeding  did  not  yield  much  better  results.     A  number  of  seedlings 


138 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


made  their  appearance,  but  the  prospects  were  so  discouraging  that  the  entire 
field  was  abandoned,  excepting  a  small  area  of  about  one  acre.  This  was  cleared 
of  weeds  by  hand  labor,  but  even  in  this  plat  not  one  plant  survived  the  summer 
drought. 

About  March  17  seedlings  came  up  nicely  in  the  canvas-covered  cold- 
frames.  By  May  13  these  were  large  enough  for  transplanting.  About  one 
acre  was  transplanted  and  irrigated  (row  or  furrow  method),  but  even  with 
irrigation  not  over  25  per  cent  of  the  seedlings  survived.  In  addition  some 
three  acres  were  planted,  following  the  procedure  of  tomato  transplanting, 
that  is,  the  seedlings  were  put  out  in  rows  six  feet  apart  each  way.  A  small 
hole  was  dug,  a  quart  of  water  poured  into  the  hole  thus  made  and  mixed  with 
dirt,  into  this  the  seedlings  were  planted.  Not  a  single  plant  survived.  It  now 
became  evident  that  belladonna  seedlings  were  far  less  resistant  to  sunshine  and 


Fig.    2. — During   the   spring   and   summer   the   cold-frames   are   uncovered. 

that  the  beds  are  filled  with  seedlings. 


Note 


drought  that  tomato  seedlings.  The  young  plants  remaining  in  the  cold-frames 
were  kept  free  from  weeds  and  occasionally  irrigated.  They  made  an  excellent 
growth  during  the  summer,  most  of  them  developing  good  roots. 

The  entire  commercial  experiment  above  outlined  can  be  sum- 
marized as  a  complete  failure,  so  complete,  in  fact,  that  if  the  writer 
had  not  had  previous  experience  with  belladonna  culture  he  would 
have  declared  it  a  waste  of  time  and  money  to  make  further  attempts. 

The  reasons  for  the  failure  were  as  follows : 

1.  Unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The  season  was  chilly,  rainfall 
deficient,  dry  winds  and  very  little  fog. 

2.  Slow  germination  of  seed,  the  packing  of  the  soil  and  top-crust 
formation,  together  with  the  slow  growth  of  the  seedlings  make  field 
seeding  wholly  impracticable. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN    CALIFORNIA 


139 


3.  The  cold-frames  were  started  too  late.  It  was  not  intended  to 
use  cold-frames  as  it  was  hoped  that  field  seeding  would  prove  at  least 
partially  successful. 

4.  To  the  above  causes  must  be  added  lack  of  experience,  inability 
to  secure  dependable  field  labor,  and  also  that  the  farm  implements 
used  were  more  or  less  unsuitable. 

Based  upon  the  experiences  of  the  preceding  year,  the  plan  of 
procedure  for  the  next  year  was  as  follows : 

1.  Begin  operations  in  September  or  early  October.  Seed  in  cold- 
frames  and  begin  transplanting  in  November. 


Fig.    3. — Open   cold   frames   with   belladonna   seedlings. 

the  weeds. 


A   laborer   pulling   out 


2.  Time  the  cold-frame  seeding  so  that  transplanting  may  proceed 
in  November,  December,  January  and  February.  Transplanting  to 
be  completed  by  the  first  of  March. 

3.  The  field  must  be  kept  free  from  wTeeds  by  hand  labor  as  wTell 
as  by  horse  cultivation. 

4.  Seeding  directly  into  the  field  was  found  to  be  impracticable  and 
must  be  abandoned.  The  seed  (in  the  field  during  the  months  of 
December,  January  and  February)  requires  at  least  eight  weeks  to 
germinate.  Within  that  period  of  time  weeds  grow  and  the  field  must 
be  kept  clear  largely  by  hand  labor,  which  is  expensive.  Furthermore, 
the  tests  of  the  previous  year  demonstrated  conclusively  that  the  seed- 
lings cannot  force  their  way  through  the  soil  top-crust. 


140  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

5.  Summer  irrigation   (June  and  July)  to  be  tried. 

6.  Japanese  labor  to  be  employed  by  contract.    Japanese  day  labor 
proved  expensive  and  unsatisfactory. 

From  August  18  to  October  18,  1908,  sixteen  cold-frames,  each  6  x  60  feet, 
were  prepared  and  seeded  to  belladonna.  The  time  required  for  a  goodly 
number  of  germs  to  appear  varied  from  six  to  ten  weeks  and  even  longer.  Cut- 
worms killed  most  of  the  seedlings  in  several  of  the  frames.  During  the  winter 
months  the  young  plants  made  very  little  growth.  From  December  9  to  Decem- 
ber 25  the  weather  was  unusually  cold  for  the  San  Francisco  bay  region,  the 
temperature  falling  below  27  degrees  F.  on  two  or  three  occasions.  Some  of  the 
leaves  of  the  young  plants  were  killed,  but  the  roots  remained  in  good  condition. 

On  November  28  and  30,  1908,  some  of  the  plants  from  the  cold-frames  were 
transplanted  (one  acre),  the  soil  being  in  excellent  tilth.  About  February  28 
three  acres  were  transplanted,  taking  the  larger  plants  from  the  sixteen  cold- 
frames  above  mentioned.  It  soon  became  evident  that  these  would  not  suc- 
ceed in  developing  adequate  root  systems  by  the  time  the  dry  season  set  in. 
With  special  care  perhaps  30  per  cent  would  survive,  but  as  this  was  not 
thought  worth  while  the  three  acres  were  abandoned  about  March  22,  thus 
leaving  only  the  acre  and  a  half  of  belladonna  in  the  field.  It  was  decided  to 
leave  the  remaining  seedlings  in  the  cold-frames,  caring  for  them  properly, 
and  transplanting  in  the  succeeding  November,  by  which  time  the  roots  would 
be  well  grown  and  hardy.  The  sixteen  cold-frames  now  held  about  200,000 
thrifty  plants,  enough  for  twenty  to  twenty-five  acres  of  belladonna  for  the 
season  of  1910. 

The  belladonna  in  the  field  began  to  show  buds  in  late  January,  1909,  and 
by  May  15  the  second  year  plants,  transplanted  May,  1908,  were  ready  for 
the  first  harvest.  In  June  the  plants  of  one  season 's  growth  (transplanted 
November,  1908)  were  ready  to  cut.  The  yield  was  light,  because  of  the 
unfavorable  season,  with  little  or  no  rain  since  the  latter  part  of  February. 
On  July  15,  355  pounds  net  of  perfectly  dry  and  brittle  belladonna  were  shipped 
to  Johnson  &  Johnson.  This  represented  the  total  yield  of  the  first  crop  from 
one  and  a  half  acres.  On  July  22  the  second  crop  was  cut  from  the  plants  of 
two  seasons'  growth;  the  yield  was  somewhat  better  than  the  first;  added  to 
the  first  cutting  it  made  a  total  yield  of  800  pounds  of  dry  leaves  and  stems 
from  an  acre  and  a  half. 

In  all  instances  drying  was  done  in  the  open.  The  leaves  dried  quickly,  in 
three  to  four  days,  while  the  stems  required  from  four  to  six  weeks  to  become 
thoroughly  dry.     In  this  time  some  of  the  leaves  were  unavoidably  lost. 

The  details  of  drying,  packing  and  shipping  had  to  be  worked  out.  Drying 
in  the  sun  and  baling  like  hay  was  found  to  be,  under  the  circumstances,  most 
suitable  for  stems  and  leaves. 

In  the  fall  of  1913  the  experimental  efforts  were  transferred  from  the  Castro 
Valley  to  San  Leandro,  near  Oakland.  About  one-half  acre  of  roots  (crowns) 
was  planted  in  the  field  and  forty  pounds  of  California-grown  seed  were  seeded 
into  large  canvas-covered  cold-frames.  Through  lack  of  care  of  the  seed  beds, 
not  over  one-sixth  of  this  seed  germinated,  and  more  than  half  of  the  seedlings 
which  made  an  appearance  were  allowed  to  die  through  neglect.  In  the  fall 
of  1914  another  half-acre  of  roots  (one-year-old  seedlings)  was  planted,  and  at 
the  present  writing  there  is  in  all  about  one  acre  of  thrifty  plants  in  the  field. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA 


141 


Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  hastening  germin- 
ation, but  without  marked  success.  Macerating  for  two  hours  in  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  shortened  the  period  by  several  days.  Macerating  in  water 
from  one  day  to  a  week  appeared  to  have  no  very  marked  effect.  Soaking  in 
boiling  hot  water  for  several  minutes  appeared  to  hasten  germination  somewhat. 

AMERICAN  EXPERIMENTS  IN  BELLADONNA  CULTURE 

The  results  of  the  experiments  and  tests  in  belladonna  culture  in 
the  United  States  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  Belladonna  can  be  grown  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  perhaps  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 


Fig.  4. — Furrow  irrigation.     Japanese  laborers  transplanting  seedlings. 


2.  In  those  states  where  the  temperature  falls  below  10  degrees  F. 
the  roots  must  be  taken  up  and  protected  against  frost  and  again 
planted  in  the  spring. 

3.  Because  of  the  slow  germination  of  the  seed  and  the  very  slow 
initial  growth  of  the  seedlings,  seeding  must  be  done  in  hot-house 
frames  in  states  with  cold  winter  seasons,  or  in  cold-frames  where 
the  winter  temperature  does  not  fall  much  below  30  degrees  F. ;  trans- 
planting to  be  done  at  the  proper  season  and  when  roots  are  well 
grown. 

4.  Although  a  shade  plant,  it  thrives  well  in  the  open  in  localities 
having  cool  nights  and  abundant  fog  (considerable  atmospheric 
moisture).  Seedlings  require  abundant  soil  moisture;  when  they  are 
well  rooted  high  soil  moisture  is  not  so  essential. 


142  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

5.  In  the  eastern  states  probably  not  more  than  one  crop  of  leaves 
and  stems  can  be  harvested  in  one  season.  Where  the  winter  is  not 
severe  two  and  perhaps  three  crops  can  be  gathered  in  one  season. 

6.  The  alkaloidal  yield  apparently  runs  high  in  belladonna  grown 
in  the  United  States,  somewhat  higher  in  California  grown  belladonna 
than  in  that  grown  in  the  eastern  states. 

7.  Belladonna  can  be  grown  most  profitably  in  the  states  having 
a  mild  winter  climate  for  the  following  reasons : 

(a)  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  up  the  roots  each  year  to  protect 
them  against  freezing.     This  means  a  great  saving  in  time  and  money. 

(b)  Growth  begins  (in  California)  about  the  middle  of  January. 
The  first  crop  is  ready  for  cutting  about  the  first  of  June,  the  second 
crop  about  the  middle  or  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  the  third  crop 
about  the  first  of  October. 

(c)  In  California  the  absence  of  rain  during  the  entire  summer 
makes  out-of-door  drying  possible,  though  drying  by  means  of  artificial 
heat  gives  better  results. 


CLIMATIC  REQUIREMENTS 

The  immediate  coast  region  from  Washington  to  the  lower  part 
of  southern  California  is  well  suited  to  the  growing  of  belladonna. 
However,  the  results  would  not  of  necessity  be  the  same  in  all  parts 
of  this  long  stretch  of  coast.  It  is  possible  too,  that  this  plant  can  be 
grown  successfully  in  the  interior  valleys  of  California  with  sufficient 
irrigation. 

There  are  certain  optimum  climatic  conditions  required  for  the 
growing  of  a  superior  quality  of  this  drug-plant  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  medicinal  use  and  value.  These  requirements  are  as 
follows  : 

1.  Temperature  and  Sunlight. — Belladonna  is  naturally  a  shade 
plant,  establishing  itself  in  rich  forest  lands  and  in  other  protected 
areas.  It  has  also  been  made  clear  that  the  plant  cannot  survive  the 
severe  winters  of  the  eastern  and  central  states.  Numerous  tests  have 
demonstrated  that  the  plant  thrives  well  in  the  open  fields.  Not  only 
do  the  plants  do  well,  but  they  show  a  very  marked  increase  in  alka- 
loidal content  as  compared  with  plants  grown  in  shaded  places. 
Extremely  hot  weather  is  harmful  unless  there  is  ample  irrigation. 
Without  such  irrigation  the  leaves  suffer  from  sunburn,  resembling 
the  sunburn  of  other  herbaceous  plants,  such  as  sugar  beets,  potatoes, 
etc,     A  temperature  which  does  not  rise  much  above  80  degrees  F. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN    CALIFORNIA 


143 


is  best  for  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  is  also  conducive  to  a  better 
yield  of  alkaloids. 

Sunlight  is  even  more  important  than  temperature.  All  of  the 
tests  made  have  demonstrated  that  plants  grown  in  the  open  freely 
exposed  to  the  sunlight  are  richer  in  alkaloids  than  plants  grown  in 
the  shade. 

The  reason  why  California  grown  belladonna  is  richer  in  total 
mydriatic  alkaloids  than  that  grown  in  the  eastern  United  States  is 
in  all  probability  due  to  the  fact  that  California  has  the  greater  number 
of  clear  days  during  the  growing  season. 

2.  Rainfall. — Belladonna  requires  considerable  soil  moisture  to 
make  a  thrifty  growth,  therefore  a  comparatively  heavy  annual  rain- 


Fig.  5. — A  view  of  belladonna  plants  in  a  field  in  Castro  Valley  near  Haywards, 
California.     The  plants  are  of  the  third  season. 


fall  is  desirable.  Good,  rich,  well-tilled  soil  receiving  20  to  30  inches 
of  rain  during  the  ^season  (December  to  middle  of  March)  will  insure 
a  good  crop,  other  things  being  equal.  In  areas  otherwise  suitable 
where  this  amount  of  rainfall  is  not  forthcoming,  irrigation  must  be 
employed.  Very  heavy  rainfall,  again,  has  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
percentage  of  alkaloids,  though  the  plants  may  make  a  very  thrifty 
growth. 

3.  Fog  and  Other  Atmospheric  Moisture. — Belladonna  thrives  best 
in  a  region  having  sunny  days  and  moisture-laden  nights,  conditions 
which  exist  in  the  immediate  coast  regions  of  California.  With  ample 
soil  moisture  (from  rain  or  irrigation)  and  good  tillage,  the  atmos- 
pheric moisture  is  not  so  essential. 


144  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

SOIL    REQUIREMENTS 

1.  The  Soil. — The  soil  host  suited  to  the  growing  of  belladonna  is 
a  rich,  medium  adobe  and  sedimentary  loam.  Excellent  belladonna 
has  been  grown  in  heavy  black  adobe  when  the  latter  was  kept  in  good 
tilth.  Good  belladonna  has  also  been  grown  in  sandy  soil  well  fer- 
tilized with  stable  manure.    It  will  not  do  well  in  clayey  soil. 

2.  Drainage. — There  should  be  good  sab-drainage  and  water  must 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  on  the  land.  The  plant  requires  considerable 
air,  and  considerable  soil  moisture,  but  it  has  no  aquatic  or  marsh 
habits. 

3.  Fertilizers. — Belladonna  is  improved,  in  yield  at  least,  through 
the  use  of  fertilizers.  Lime  appears  to  increase  the  alkaloidal  content 
and  would  be  especially  useful  in  the  heavy  soils  and  those  tending 
to  sour. 

4.  Preparing  the  Soil. — To  insure  a  good  crop  the  soil  must  be  well 
prepared  and  if  belladonna  is  to  be  successfully  grown  there  must  be 
no  exception  to  this  basic  agricultural  principle. 

(a)  Plowing. — Just  as  soon  as  the  first  rains  of  the  season  (Novem- 
ber and  December)  have  moistened  the  soil  sufficiently,  it  should  be 
plowed  to  a  depth  of  at  least  nine  inches.  Every  bit  of  the  soil  should 
be  turned. 

(b)  Discing. — The  plowecL field  is  next  gone  over  twice  (crossed) 
with  the  familiar  disc  harrow,  well  overlapping  each  time.  As  this 
farm  implement  cannot  be  used  in  wet  soil  there  is  little  danger  of 
operating  at  the  wrong  time. 

(c)  Harrowing. — After  the  discing,  the  field  should  be  harrowed 
twice,  well  overlapping  each  time,  using  a  long-tooth  harrow.  The 
harrowing  should  be  done  just  before  the  field  is  to  be  planted,  in 
order  to  kill  as  many  of  the  weeds  as  possible. 

(d)  Marking. — Mark  off  the  field  in  cross  lines  three  feet  apart. 
This  is,  of  course,  done  just  before  the  transplanting.  Other  methods 
for  checking  the  field  for  transplanting  may  be  employed,  but  the 
marking  (three  to  six  rows)  is  the  simplest.  The  tomato  marker  (six- 
foot  rows)  can  be  used  by  doubling  the  number  of  shoes. 

SEED  GERMINATION  AND  CARE  OF  SEEDLINGS 

1.  The  Seed. — Seed  may  be  obtained  from  England,  France,  Aus- 
tria and  Germany,  through  the  larger  New  York  seed  firms.  The  price 
per  pound  is  about  twenty  dollars.  If  possible,  American-grown  seed 
should  be  obtained,  as  this  seed  has  a  higher  germinating  power  and 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA 


145 


the  seedlings  are  thriftier;  also  the  alkaloidal  yield  is  likely  to  be 
higher. 

At  the  present  time  seed  cannot  be  had  from  Europe,  and  the 
American  supply  is  very  limited. 

The  seeds  are  somewhat  smaller  than  alfalfa  seeds  and  brown  in 
color.  The  seed  coat  is  composed  of  suberized  tissue  which  prevents 
the  ready  entrance  and  also  the  escape  of  moisture.  The  seed  should 
be  dry  and  kept  in  a  dry  place.  Under  such  conditions  it  retains  its 
germinating  power  undiminished  for  three  and  even  four  years. 

2.  Preparing  the  Seed  Beds,  or  Cold-Frames. — For  all  parts  of 
California  adapted  to  the  growing  of  belladonna,  seeding  is  done  in 


Fig.  6. — The  first  load  of  belladonna  from  Castro  Valley. 


cold-frames.  A  suitable  dimension  per  single  bed  is  6  feet  wide  by 
60  feet  long,  and  this  should,  if  the  work  is  properly  done,  contain 
enough  seedlings  for  one  acre  of  belladonna  when  planted  in  check 
rows  three  feet  each  way.  For  the  sides  of  the  cold-frames  10-foot 
boards  twelve  inches  wide  (third-class  pine  lumber  will  answer)  may 
be  used,  breaking  the  joined  ends  on  opposite  sides,  thus  making  it 
necessary  to  use  one  5-foot  piece  at  each  end.  Better  sides  can  be 
made  by  using  three  6-inch  (fence)  boards,  making  the  total  height 
18  inches,  the  lower  board  being  buried  about  three  inches.  The  boards 
are  nailed  to  and  held  in  place  by  suitable  stakes  driven  in  (on  the 
outside)  at  the  corners  and  at  suitable  intervals  along  the  sides.  Along 
the  middle  of  the  bed  stakes  (1  x  4-in.  x  3-ft.  pieces)  are  driven  for  the 
support  of  the  ridge  pieces  (1  x  4-in.  x  12-ft.) .  This  ridge  piece  is  con- 
nected with  the  sides  of  the  bed  by  laths  nailed  at  intervals  of  three 


146  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

feet.  This  roof  frame  is  for  the  support  of  the  canvas  which  is  needed 
to  keep  out  the  winter  rains,  and  also  to  protect  the  young  seedlings 
against  the  occasional  frosts. 

Dig  the  soil  out  of  the  cold-frame  to  a  depth  of  at  least  ten  inches, 
put  down  a  layer  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  free  from  seeds  of  oats, 
barley,  etc.,  and  replace  the  soil  on  top  of  this  layer  of  manure  to  a 
depth  of  eight  inches.  The  manure  warms  the  soil  and  hastens  very 
materially  the  germination  of  the  seed. 

3.  Seeding  into  the  Cold-frames. — The  soil  in  the  beds  being  in 
proper  tilth  and  suitably  moist,  scatter  over  the  surface  of  the  soil 
(broadcast  by  hand)  1.25  pounds  of  seed  to  each  bed.  Scatter  the 
seed  uniformly.  Cover  the  seed  by  means  of  a  rake,  to  a  depth  of 
about  0.25  inch,  tamping  the  surface  lightly,  also  by  means  of  the 
rake.  The  soil  must  be  fine  and  rich.  If  the  soil  is  not  rich  it  should 
be  made  so  by  adding  leaf  or  other  compost.  A  quart  of  lime  mixed 
with  the  compost  and  soil  of  each  bed  gives  good  results.  Mix  this 
well  into  the  upper  third  of  the  eight-inch  layer  of  the  soil  in  the  bed. 

The  soil  must  be  kept  well  moistened  (not  soggy  or  wet)  up  to 
the  very  surface  all  the  time.  This  is  very  important .  Seed  lying 
near  the  surface  in  dry  soil  ivill  not  germinate.  Irrigate  by  means  of 
a  garden  hose  or  sprinkling  can,  using  fine  spray  so  as  not  to  disturb 
the  surface  of  the  soil. 

4.  Germination  of  the  Seed. — If  the  seeding  is  properly  done  in 
a  properly  prepared  and  cared-f or  bed  or  cold-frame,  seedlings  will 
begin  to  appear  at  the  end  of  six  weeks,  and  at  the  end  of  nine  weeks 
nearly  all  seeds  that  are  capable  of  germinating  will  have  germinated. 
The  two  cotyledons  which  make  their  appearance  resemble  somewhat 
the  cotyledons  of  the  common  chickweed.  The  seedlings  make  a  slow 
growth. 

5.  Care  of  the  Seed  Beds  and  the  Seedlings. — Even  before  the 
belladonna  seeds  begin  to  germinate  it  will  be  necessary  to  pick  out 
weeds  which  have  made  their  appearance.  Early  in  the  season  up  to 
July,  the  soil  in  the  beds  should  be  kept  moist  so  that  the  seedlings 
may  make  a  good  growth  and  develop  good  roots.  After  July,  the 
soil  should  be  allowed  to  remain  fairly  dry,  with  just  enough  moisture 
to  keep  the  plants  alive.     The  weeds  must  be  kept  out  at  all  times. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  transplant  the  seedlings  into  the  open,  as  is 
done  with  tomato  seedlings.  This  entails  additional  labor  and  expense 
which  is  probably  not  warranted  by  any  gains  which  might  result. 

The  cost  of  labor  to  make  the  frames,  to  seed  them  and  to  care  for 
the  seedlings  in  the  cold-frame  until  ready  for  transplanting  into  the 


THE   CULTIVATION    OF    BLLLADONNA    IN    CALIFORNIA 


147 


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148  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

field,  one  year  from  time  of  seeding,  is  from  $25.00  to  $30.00  per  frame 
for  a  group  of  ten  to  twenty  frames  (6  x  60  feet  each). 

For  the  coast  region  the  best  time  for  seeding  is  from  the  middle 
of  December  to  the  middle  of  February.  Earlier  seeding  (September, 
October  and  November)  offers  no  gain  and  the  young  seedlings  are 
likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  cut- worm,  which  is  active  in  October, 
November,  and  early  December.  Later  seeding  (March,  April,  and 
May)  encounters  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season  and  compels  daily 
or  even  twice  daily  irrigation  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  amply 
moist,  and  the  seedlings  encounter  the  second,  though  lesser,  ravages 
of  the  cut- worm. 

The  seed  beds  should  be  built  in  a  protected  place  where  winds  and 
frost  are  least  effective.  The  beds  should  have  drain  furrows  to  carry 
off  the  surface  water,  which  might  otherwise  flood  the  cold-frames. 

TRANSPLANTING  THE  SEEDLINGS 

1.  The  season  for  transplanting  the  seedlings  which  have  been 
cared  for  in  the  cold  frames,  is  December,  January,  and  early  Febru- 
ary, or  just  as  soon  after  the  first  heavy  rains  as  the  soil  can  be 
properly  prepared. 

To  transplant  earlier  than  the  time  specified  would  be  without  gain, 
and  as  the  first  stem-buds  begin  to  appear  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
February,  transplanting  should  be  completed  somewhat  earlier  if  pos- 
sible. Plants  may,  however,  be  transplanted  at  any  season  of  the  year 
without  killing  them,  if  given  proper  care. 

2.  Method  of  Transplanting. — Take  up  the  seedlings  with  a  garden 
trowel  or  a  small  spade.  Cut  off  the  dead  tops  and  leave  about 
six  inches  of  the  main  root,  with  such  side  rootlets  as  may  be  present. 
Place  the  trimmed  seedlings  in  suitable  trays  or  boxes  (tomato  boxes 
answer  the  purpose  very  well),  and  transport  them  to  the  field.  A 
laborer  throws  the  plants  in  or  near  the  marked  places  and  other 
laborers  follow  with  short-handled  hoes,  such  as  are  used  in  transplant- 
ing tomatoes,  cutting  a  hole  deep  enough  to  receive  root  and  crown, 
leaving  only  the  dead  stem  remnant  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  The  crown  part  should  be  well  covered,  at  least  to  a  depth  of 
one  inch.  Use  fine  dirt  to  cover  the  roots  and  crown,  tamping  in  the 
loose  soil  with  the  flat  of  the  hoe  blade. 

A  light  spade  is  also  very  convenient  for  making  the  holes  for 
the  plants,  and  while  this  tool  offers  certain  advantages  over  the  hoe, 
the  energetic  use  of  the  latter  gives  better  results.  Japanese  laborers 
invariably  prefer  the  hoe. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA 


149 


TRANSPLANTING   THE   CROWN  CUTTINGS 

From  what  has  already  been  said  it  is  perhaps  apparent  that  the 
grower  uses  seed  once  only,  unless  perhaps  to  furnish  an  increase  in 
acreage  over  and  above  that  which  would  result  from  the  use  of  avail- 
able crown  cuttings. 

1.  Preparing  the  Soil. — The  soil  is  prepared  in  the  manner  already 
described,  by  plowing,  discing,  harrowing  and  marking. 

2.  Dividing  the  Crowns. — The  crowns  are  taken  from  the  heeling-in 
bed  and  trimmed  when  necessary,  the  larger  ones  being  cut  into  two, 
three,  and  even  into  five  pieces.    Some  judgment  will  have  to  be  exer- 


n 


Fig.  8. — Belladonna  field  near  San  Leandro,  Cal.  The  photograph  was  taken 
on  the  first  of  June.  The  field  to  the  right  contains  plants  which  were  trans- 
planted (cold-frame  seedlings)   in  February  of  the  same  year.     The  larger  plants 

to  the  left  represent  second-year  plants. 


cised  in  dividing  the  crowns.  Naturally,  the  larger  the  crown,  the 
more  likely  it  will  be  to  develop  into  a  thrifty  plant.  The  number  of 
visible  buds  is  not  the  essential  guide  to  the  cutting  process,  as  the 
crown  parts  bear  many  adventitious  buds  which  may  develop  into 
stems.  The  smaller,  single-rooted  crowns  are  as  a  rule  not  divided. 
A  large,  sharp  knife  (butcher  knife)  should  be  used.  A  dull  tool 
bruises  and  otherwise  damages  the  crowns.  The  dead  tops  may  be 
trimmed  off  and  all  badly  bruised  or  diseased  root  portions  removed. 
3.  Planting  the  Crown  Cuttings. — The  crown  cuttings  are  dropped 
into  convenient  boxes  and  carried  or  otherwise  transported  to  the  field 
and  planted  much  like  the  seedlings,  as  already  described.     Crown 


150  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

planting  is,  however,  simpler  and  easier.  The  holes  need  not  be  so 
deep,  as  the  length  of  the  crown  cuttings  does  not  exceed  three  or  four 
inches,  as  a  rule.  The  cuttings  must  be  placed  in  vertical  position  and 
covered  to  a  depth  of  three  inches.  In  fact,  the  cuttings  are  planted 
much  like  potatoes.  In  this  operation  the  short-handled  hoe  is  by  far 
the  best  implement  to  use. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  seedlings  and  the  crowns  be 
buried  deep  enough  so  that  the  soil-layer  forming  the  covering  is 
wholly  below  the  general  surface  of  the  field  level.  Laying  the  crown 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  covering  to  a  depth  of  three  inches  will 
not  do,  as  the  winter  rains  would  soon  wrash  the  covering  layer  of  soil 
away  and  expose  the  crowns,  which  would  then  fail  to  make  a  good 
start,  or  perhaps  they  would  die  altogether,  as  soon  as  the  dry  season 
sets  in. 

The  larger  roots  (the  tap  root  and  the  larger  branches  nearer  the 
crown)  are  rich  in  adventitious  buds,  and  as  these  buds  will  develop 
into  shoots  and  stems,  portions  of  the  roots  may  be  used  for  transplant- 
ing. However,  as  will  be  explained  later,  the  roots  are  intended  for 
the  market  rather  than  for  transplanting. 

CARE  OF  THE  CROP 

After  the  transplanting  (of  either  seedlings  or  crowns)  into  the  field 
is  completed  (from  the  latter  part  of  January  to  early  part  of  March) 
nothing  further  need  be  done  until  after  the  heavy  winter  rains  have 
ceased.  Just  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  the  field  cultural  oper- 
ations should  be  started  and  kept  up  during  the  entire  growing  season. 

1.  Cultivating. — A  two-horse,  one-row  cultivator  should  be  used. 
Begin  this  operation  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  for  such 
work,  even  before  the  young  shoots  begin  to  make  their  appearance, 
being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  plants  themselves.  Cultivate  in  both 
directions    ( cross-cultivation ) . 

The  number  of  cultivations  during  the  entire  growing  season  (April 
to  October)  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  field  (weeds)  and  the 
season.  Certainly  no  less  than  five  or  six  should  be  made.  The  soil 
should  be  kept  in  good  tilth,  which  means  that  the  top  soil  is  to  be 
fine  and  well  stirred. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough  (beginning  of  May)  the 
dirt  may  be  turned  toward  the  plants  more  and  more,  care  being 
taken  that  the  smaller  plants  are  not  covered. 

2.  Hoeing  and  Weeding. — Cultivation  will  remove  most  of  the 
weeds,  but  those  which  are  close  to  the  belladonna  plants  must  be 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA  151 

removed  by  means  of  the  hoe,  aided  by  the  hand.  In  all  probability 
the  field  will  have  to  be  gone  over  in  this  manner  three  to  four  times 
during  the  growing  season.  Where  indicated  use  the  hoe  to  heap  the 
dirt  about  the  crowns. 

3.  Irrigating. — Irrigation  is  not  essential  in  good  rich  soil  with 
sub-soil  seepage.  Irrigating  the  first  year  is  certainly  beneficial  and 
should  be  carried  out,  if  possible,  viz.,  once  in  April  (latter  part  of 
the  month)  and  just  after  the  first  crop  is  cut  (latter  part  of  May  or 
early  June).  Row  or  furrow  irrigation  is  best.  Flooding  is  not  good 
for  the  leaf  development.  Flooding  is,  however,  feasible  immediately 
after  the  first  crop  has  been  cut.     Irrigation  increases  the  root  devel- 


Fig.  9. — Belladonna  field  near  San  Leandro,  Cal.  The  photograph  was  taken 
on  the  first  of  June.  The  plants  are  of  the  second  year 's  growth,  from  crown 
cuttings. 

opment  so  that  as  a  result  the  second  year's  growth  will  give  a  some- 
what larger  yield  also.  Irrigation  is,  as  a  general  rule,  not  required 
during  the  second,  third  and  fourth  years,  as  the  deeply  penetrating 
roots  will  secure  ample  moisture  for  stems  and  leaves.  Irrigation  does 
not  increase  the  alkaloidal  yield.  It  does  increase  the  tonnage,  how- 
ever. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP 

As  already  indicated,  the  herb  (stems  with  leaves,  flowers  and  some 
partially  developed  fruits)  is  cut  at  the  time  of  maximum  flowering, 
which  for  the  first  cutting  is  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  May, 
or  in  a  late  season,  in  early  June.  The  second  crop  is  usually  cut  in 
late  August. 


152  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

1.  Harvesting  the  Herb. — A  small  acreage  (two  to  five  acres)  is 
generally  cut  by  hand,  using  a  large,  heavy  knife,  or  the  pruning 
shears,  taking  two  rows  at  one  time.  Make  heaps  of  four  rows.  Do 
not  make  the  heaps  large,  as  this  would  interfere  with  drying. 

In  case  of  large  acreage,  ten  to  one  hundred  acres,  a  small  self-rake 
reaper,  cutting  two  rows  at  one  time,  would  prove  very  valuable. 

The  larger  basal  parts  of  the  stems  should  not  be  included,  as  they 
usually  run  low  in  alkaloids.  Cut  off  the  stems  about  four  to  six  inches" 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In  cutting  by  hand  care  should  be 
observed  not  to  include  weeds  which  may  be  present.  However,  in  a 
properly  cultivated  field  weeds  should  be  present  in  negligible  quan- 
tities only. 

2.  Cutting  or  Drying  the  Herb. — In  average  California  weather  it 
takes  from  five  to  six  weeks  for  the  herb  to  dry,  if  left  on  the  ground 
in  the  field.  This  long  exposure  to  sun  and  more  or  less  fog  and 
night  air  moisture,  causes  a  marked  browning  of  stems  and  leaves, 
though  there  is  apparently  no  great  loss  in  active  constituents.  A 
better  plan  is  to  leave  the  plants  in  the  field  for  five  or  six  days  and 
then  to  complete  the  drying  in  a  hop  kiln  at  a  temperature  of  about 
120  degrees  F.  This  method  will  yield  a  better,  greener  and  less 
broken  article. 

If  the  drying  is  done  in  the  field  the  heaps  should  be  turned  several 
times  each  week.  Do  this  in  the  morning  before  the  leaves  and  small 
branches  have  become  dry  and  brittle,  so  as  to  avoid  loss.  When 
drying  is  complete  (all  parts  of  the  stems  must  be  brittle),  gather  the 
material  in  the  morning  wrhile  damp  into  a  wagon  using  a  five-prong 
manure  fork,  and  haul  to  the  barn  or  place  on  a  drying  floor  where  it 
is  allowed  to  remain  for  another  week  or  two,  preparatory  to  baling. 

3.  Baling  the  Herb. — When  the  herb  is  entirely  dry  it  is  pressed 
into  bales  of  100  to  125  pounds  each  by  means  of  a  hand-power  hay 
press,  or  if  large  quantities  are  to  be  prepared  for  the  market  (50  to 
100  tons)  the  usual  horse-power  hay  press  may  be  employed.  Baling 
is  best  while  the  material  is  slightly  damp,  as  in  the  early  forenoon. 
The  one  who  feeds  the  press  should  watch  for  and  remove  stray  weeds 
and  other  foreign  matter.  The  bales  are  wired  like  hay  or  straw 
bales,  and  when  finished,  placed  in  a  suitable  shed. 

4.  Covering  the  Bales. — The  bales  of  belladonna  are  sewed  into 
burlap  for  protection  in  handling  in  shipment  and  to  keep  out  dust 
and  dirt.  Burlap  suitable  for  the  purpose  can  be  procured  wholesale 
for  about  four  to  six  cents  per  pound. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA    IN    CALIFORNIA 


153 


Fig.  10. — A  single  flowering  branch  of  belladonna.  An  unexpanded  flower 
is  shown  near  the  tip  and  two  partially  developed  berries  at  the  other  end.  Sev- 
eral fully  expanded  flowers  are  shown.     Photograph  taken  June  first. 


154  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

5.  Harvesting  the  Roots. — At  the  end  of  the  fourth  season  imme- 
diately after  the  second  crop  of  tops  (herb)  has  been  cut,  the  roots, 
with  the  crowns,  are  taken  up.  As  the  roots  penetrate  deeply  into  the 
soil  a  plow,  such  as  is  used  for  plowing  up  sugar  beets,  is  required. 

The  roots  are  picked  out  of  the  soil  carefully  by  hand,  so  as  to 
avoid  breaking  them  off  in  the  lumps  of  soil,  and  placed  in  heaps. 
They  are  then  thrown  into  a  wagon  and  hauled  to  the  drying  place. 
By  means  of  a  large  butcher  knife  or  a  beet  knife,  the  crowns  with 
about  three  inches  of  root  are  removed  and  the  roots  cut  into  lengths 
of  four  or  five  inches.  The  larger  roots  are  also  split  in  longitudinal 
direction  once  or  twice,  in  order  that  they  may  dry  more  quickly. 
Washing  the  roots  before  drying  is  generally  not  necessary,  as  during 
this  time  of  the  year  the  soil  is  very  dry  and  the  roots  are  almost 
entirely  freed  from  dirt  by  the  handling.  Should  dirt  cling  to  some 
of  the  roots  it  must  be  removed  by  means  of  a  brush  or  whisk  broom 
or  by  washing  in  water. 

6.  Heeling-in  the  Crowns. — Level  an  area  of  the  field  in  some  con- 
venient place,  removing  dirt  to  the  depth  of  several  inches.  Set  in 
the  crowns  as  closely  as  possible  and  cover  with  dirt  to  a  depth  of  two 
inches.  Here  the  crowns  are  to  remain  until  the  time  for  transplant- 
ing, that  is,  after  the  rains  have  set  in  and  the  soil  is  prepared  to 
receive  them.  The  heeled-in  crowns  must  be  irrigated  slightly  in 
order  to  keep  them  from  drying  out.  Care  must  be  observed  that 
not  too  much  water  is  used,  as  then  they  would  start  to  grow,  which 
is  not  desirable. 

7.  Drying  the  Boots. — The  clean  roots  properly  cut  and  sliced  are 
spread  on  a  board  floor  or  on  hurdles  and  dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  the 
kiln.  If  sun  drying  is  to  be  carried  out,  the  roots  should  be  raked 
together  each  night  and  covered  to  keep  out  moisture.  Sun  drying 
will  require  from  three  to  four  weeks'  time.  Kiln  drying  at  120 
degrees  F.  is  preferable.  Dried  roots  are  packed  and  shipped  in 
boxes  or  in  sacks. 

Roots  and  crowns  are  taken  up  once  every  four  years.  Four-year 
roots  are  apt  to  be  somewhat  woody  and  fibrous,  and  not  of  as  high 
quality  as  third-year  roots  would  be.  However,  it  would  hardly  be 
advisable  to  take  up  the  roots  every  third  year  for  the  sake  of  the 
slightly  better  quality  and  perhaps  a  correspondingly  better  price, 
because  any  such  gain  would  be  more  than  offset  by  the  increased 
cost  of  preparing  the  soil  and  transplanting  crowns  every  third  year, 
which  would  have  to  be  done  as  a  consequence. 

8.  Yield  per  Acre. — As  with  other  crops,  the  yield  is  variable.  The 
first  season's  crop  (two  cuttings  of  the  herb)  should  be  1800  pounds 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF    BELLADONNA    IN    CALIFORNIA 


155 


net,  dry  weight.     The  second  season's  crop  should  be  one  ton  and  the 
third  season  should  yield  from  2100  to  2200  pounds  dry  weight.     The 


Fig.  11. 


-A  single  plant  with  one  main  stem,  at  time  of  flowering  (April  22), 
from  the  belladonna  farm  at  San  Leandro.  The  plants  are  ready  to  cut  (first 
seasonal  crop).     The  second  crop  will  be  ready  to  cut  in  August. 


fourth  year  should  yield  2200  pounds  of  the  herb  and  not  less  than 
1000  pounds  of  roots,  both  dry  weight.  This  would  probably  repre- 
sent the  maximum  yield. 


156  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

9.  Repreparing  the  Soil. — As  indicated  in  (8)  the  entire  crop, 
roots  and  all,  is  taken  up  once  every  four  years.  This  becomes  neces- 
sary for  several  reasons.  First,  the  plants  become  exhausted  by  the 
frequent  cutting  and  require  renewal ;  and  second,  the  soil  requires 
retilling.  The  soil  is  prepared  in  the  manner  "already  explained. 
Fertilizer  (stable  manure  and  lime)  should  be  added.  Lime  is  used, 
especially  if  the  soil  is  of  the  heavy  adobe  variety.  Manure  is  more 
especially  required  in  the  lighter,  sandier  soils.  These  matters  have 
already  been  explained. 


THE  BELLADONNA  MARKET 

The  demand  for  the  dried  herb,  leaves  and  root  is  quite  constant 
and  is  increasing  slightly  every  year.  The  United  States  requires 
about  three  hundred  tons  of  the  drug  annually.  The  European  war 
has  cut  off  the  foreign  supply  almost  completely,  and  the  home  pro- 
duction up  to  the  present  time  is  almost  nil ;  as  a  result  the  price  has 
risen  from  about  twelve  cents  per  pound  to  one  dollar  per  pound  at 
wholesale. 

In  addition  to  the  demand  for  the  drug  in  the  dry  state  there  is 
a  very  limited  request  for  the  green  or  fresh  herb.  In  homeopathic 
practice  the  juice  is  expressed  from  the  fresh  plant  and  this,  when 
mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of  alcohol,  constitutes  the  "mother- 
tincture"  from  which  the  various  attenuations  (dilutions)  are  pre- 
pared. 

1.  The  Wholesale  Market. — The  grower  is  interested  in  the  whole- 
sale market  very  largely.  Any  drug  dealer  or  pharmaceutical  manu- 
facturing house  that  requires  one  or  more  tons  of  the  drug  each  year 
may  be  considered  a  wholesaler.  One  American  manufacturing  house 
uses  over  eighty  tons  of  the  dried  drug  every  year.  Others  use  from 
nine  to  thirty  tons  per  year.  The  grower  should  get  in  direct  touch 
with  the  wholesale  users  of  belladonna,  instead  of  acting  through  a 
broker,  agent  or  middleman.    There  is  no  excuse  for  a  middleman. 

Prospective  buyers  must  be  convinced  of  the  quality  of  the  article 
offered  for  sale,  and  they  must  be  given  some  reasonable  assurance  as 
to  the  amount  one  may  ship  them  from  year  to  year.  To  convince 
them  of  quality,  samples  (about  one  pound  of  an  average  lot)  must 
be  submitted  for  chemical  assay.  For  check  purposes  the  grower 
should  also  assay  a  sample  from  the  same  lot.  If  the  grower  is  not 
equipped  for  making  an  assay  he  should  have  this  done  for  him  by 
some  competent  and  reliable  pharmaceutical  chemist. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA    IN    CALIFORNIA 


157 


3.  The  Retail  Market. — The  retail  market  for  belladonna  and 
other  drugs,  is  represented  by  the  drug  stores  of  the  land,  of  which 
there  are  many  thousands.  Each  one  of  these  stores  carries  a  very 
small  quantity  of  official  belladonna  (the  dried  root  or  the  dried  leaf, 
with  terminal  branches).  The  grower  would  have  no  trouble  in  find- 
ing a  retail  market  for  the  root,  but  most  practising  pharmacists 
would  probably  object  to  the  herb  because  of  the  large  percentage  of 
stems  present.  It  would  not  be  possible  to  market  hand-picked  leaves 
profitably  for  less  than  $1.00  per  pound  (the  present  war  price  is 
nearly  $3.00  per  pound). 


Fig.  12.— A  group  of  two  plants  from  the  same  field  as  Fig.  11.  These  plants 
and  also  the  one  shown  in  Fig  11,  represent  the  third  year's  growth,  first  sea- 
sonal crop  as  explained  under  Fig.  11. 

The  American  grower,  for  the  time  being  at  least,  will  not  trouble 
himself  about  the  retail  market.  Later,  when  the  market  for  the 
home  grown  belladonna  is  fully  established,  the  grower  will  also  sup- 
ply the  retail  pharmacist. 


THE  ALKALOIDAL  YIELD  OF  BELLADONNA 

The  medicinal  (therapeutic)  value  of  belladonna  depends  upon 
the  presence  of  certain  active  constituents,  namely  the  alkaloids  atro- 
pine and  hyoscyanine  and  other  so-called  mydriatic  alkaloids,  of  which 
atropine  is  the  most  important.  The  assays  usually  include  the  total 
amount  of  all  alkaloids  present.     It  will  therefore  be  readily  under- 


158  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

stood  that  the  commercial  value  of  the  drug  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  alkaloids  present.  The  variation  in  active  constituents  in 
the  belladonna  grown  in  different  countries,  and  even  in  individual 
plants  from  the  same  field,  is  considerable.  The  alkaloidal  yield  is  also 
greatly  influenced  by  climatic  conditions,  sunlight,  cultural  methods 
and  use  of  fertilizers,  as  has  already  been  indicated.  The  first  year 
plants  (from  seed)  run  low  in  alkaloids.  The  second  year's  growth 
runs  much  higher  and  the  maximum  alkaloidal  yield  is  reached  in  the 
third  year.  The  fourth  year  yield  varies  very  little,  if  any,  from  that 
of  the  third  year.  The  extremes  in  California  grown  belladonna  thus 
far  observed  range  from  0.12  per  cent  of  total  alkaloids  in  a  first-year 
seedling  which  was  grown  in  the  shade,  to  1.02  per  cent  in  a  single 
large  fourth-year  plant  grown  in  rich  sandy  soil,  freely  exposed  to 
the  sun.  The  following  are  some  of  the  alkaloidal  yields  of  California 
field-grown  belladonna. 

Cold-frame    seedlings  Second    and    third-year   plants 

(first-year  growth)  (stems  and  leaves) 

in  open  in  open 

Total    alkaloids    0.217  per  cent         Total    alkaloids    0.775  per  cent 

0.358  0.788 

0.260  0.590 

0.304  0.460 

0.516  0.784 

0.423  0.630 

0.480  0.675 
0.224 

Second    and    third-year    plants  Second    and    third-year   plants 

(leaves)    in    open  (stems)   in  open 

Total   alkaloids    0.848  per  cent  Total    alkaloids    0.852  per  cent 

0.822  .0762 

0.640  0.590 

0.500  0.800 

0.760  0.684 

0.720 

Third    and    fourth-year    plants  Third    and    fourth-year    plants 

(leaves)  in  shade  (stems)   in  shade 

Total    alkaloids   0.474  per  cent 


0.350 

0.400 

0.238 

0.340 

0.325 

0.425 

0.442 

Fourth-year  plants 

(roots)  in  open 

Total   alkaloids    0.540  per  cent 

0.484 

0.500 

0.380 

THE   CULTIVATION   OF   BELLADONNA   IN   CALIFORNIA  159 

All  of  the  tests  thus  far  made  indicate  that  the  plants  grown  in 
the  open,  freely  exposed  to  the  sun,  contain  a  much  higher  yield  in 
alkaloids  than  do  plants  grown  in  the  shade.  The  rather  limited  tests 
made  indicate  that  lime  is  the  only  fertilizer  that  causes  any  marked 
increase  in  alkaloidal  yield.  This  fertilizer  is  especially  indicated  in  all 
heavier  so-called  adobe  soils. 

SUGGESTIONS  KELATIVE  TO  THE  INCEEASE  OF  THE  ALAKALOIDAL 

CONTENTS 

The  grower  of  belladonna  should  at  all  times  endeavor  to  increase 
the  quality  of  the  drug.  The  chief  effort  should  naturally  be  directed 
towards  securing  an  increase  in  alkaloidal  content.  The  importance 
of  liming  and  free  exposure  to  sunlight  has  already  been  mentioned. 
The  following  suggestions  are  based  upon  field  observations,  and  it 
is  believed  that  careful  field  tests  along  these  lines  will  prove  of  great 
value  in  securing  a  further  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  drug. 

1.  Cross-pollination. — As  already  stated,  belladonna  should  be  harvested  at 
the  time  of  maximum  flowering,  because  it  has  been  found  that  at  this  time 
the  leaves  as  well  as  the  stems  contain  the  seasonal  maximum  amount  of  alka- 
loids. The  indications  are  that  the  alkaloidal  content  is  proprotional  to  the 
number  of  flowers  present;  that  is,  comparatively  numerous  flowers  indicate 
a  comparatively  high  alkaloidal  content.  It  would  also  appear  that  cross- 
fertilization  increases  the  alkaloidal  yield  somewhat.  It  was  noted  that  the 
yield  was  in  every  way  better  in  a  patch  of  belladonna  grown  near  a  large 
tomato  field  where  there  were  numerous  pollen-carrying  insects,  notably  Dia- 
brotica  14  punctata,  and  the  brown  lady  bird,  and  also  bees.  Particularly  notice- 
able was  the  increase  in  the  yield  of  fruit  (berries). 

2.  Artificial  Selection. — The  variation  in  the  alkaloidal  content  of  individual 
plants  in  the  same  field  suggests  that  it  might  be  easy  to  develop  a  stock  rich 
in  alkaloids  by  growing  new  plants  from  the  crowns  or  from  the  seed  of  those 
plants  which  run  unusually  high  in  total  alkaloids,  following  the  methods  which 
have  proved  so  eminently  successful  in  increasing  the  sugar  content  in  sugar 
beets. 

FIELD  ENEMIES  OF  BELLADONNA 

Fortunately  the  field  enemies  of  belladonna  are  few,  and  none 
of  them  appear  to  work  any  great  harm.  The  following  are  the  more 
important  ones  thus  far  observed : 

1.  The  Army-ivorm  or  Cut-worm. — The  larvae  of  Diabrotica  11 
punctata,  commonly  known  as  cut-worm,  and  which  is  frequently  so 
destructive  to  tomato  seedlings,  may  be  destructive  to  the  very  young 
belladonna  seedlings.  The  seasons  for  the  greatest  activity  of  the 
cut-worm  are  October  and  November,  and  again  early  spring  (March 


160  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

and  April).     The  seeding  of  belladonna  should  be  so  timed  as  to 
avoid  the  periods  of  cut-worm  activity,  as  has  been  suggested. 

2.  Diabrotica. — The  beetle  Diabrotica  14  punctata,  commonly 
known  as  green-backed  lady  bird,  may  work  harm  by  feeding  upon 
the  leaves.  The  harm  done  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
leaf  tissue  eaten,  but  at  no  time  has  the  destruction  by  this  insect 
been  sufficient  to  materially  lessen  the  yield. 

3.  Root  Rot. — Seedlings  (in  the  cold  frames)  and  the  roots  of  older 
plants  (fourth  and  fifth-year  plants)  may  be  attacked  by  fungi,  caus- 
ing partial  and  even  complete  destruction  of  the  plant.  Plants  thus 
killed  in  the  field  should  be  replaced  by  new  well-rooted  seedlings  or 
crown  cuttings. 

4.  Aphis. — A  species  of  aphis  has  made  its  appearance  upon  some 
of  the  plants  which  were  grown  in  the  shade.  None  have  thus  far 
been  found  on  sun-grown  plants. 

5.  Frosts. — Late  spring  frosts  may  kill  off  some  of  the  leaves  of 
the  young  shoots.  This  is  of  rare  occurrence  along  the  coast,  and  the 
injury  done  is  usually  trivial. 

6.  Sunburn  of  Leaves. — During  hot  summer  days  some  of  the  older 
basal  leaves  may  be  killed  by  the  sun's  rays.  The  injury  done  in  this 
manner  is  also  slight.  A  wilting  and  browning  of  basal  leaves  is 
usually  an  indication  that  it  is  time  for  cutting  the  crop. 

7.  Squirrels  and  Gophers. — These  are  common  agricultural  pests 
in  California,  but  are  no  more  destructive  to  belladonna  than  they  are 
to  other  crops. 


